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Turquoise, a gemstone whose origins trace back thousands of years before the birth of Christ, has captivated civilisations across the globe. From Iran to China, and from Central Asia to the Americas, this precious mineral continues to be extracted and treasured in our contemporary era. While turquoise deposits exist throughout Iran’s vast territory, the name “Nishapur turquoise” has become synonymous with the finest quality of this gemstone. This association has unfortunately led some opportunistic traders to exploit the Nishapur name for inferior and less valuable stones. However, authentic Nishapur turquoise has successfully competed with its toughest rivals and maintained its exalted position throughout history.
This article examines the archaeological evidence and historical significance of turquoise, particularly the renowned “Bu Ishaq turquoise” with its global value, tracing its journey from the Bronze Age through the Qajar period. The study draws upon archaeological reports from distinguished scholars, historical accounts, and authoritative sources ranging from Nasir al-Din Tusi’s “Tansukh-nama-ye Ilkhani” to the poetry of celebrated Persian poets like Hafez.
Turquoise has been humanity’s companion since the earliest civilisations, adorning everything from simple rings and necklaces to elaborate jewellery pieces, from handicrafts for export to the simplest tools in workers’ hands. Tourists from around the world travel to Mashhad and Qom to purchase authentic Nishapur turquoise as souvenirs, testament to its enduring appeal.
This beautiful and captivating mineral has stood before human eyes since ancient times, surviving in an era when its continued existence seemed impossible to imagine. The earliest historical period, sometimes termed the “primitive stage” of human life, marked the beginning of collective living. During this era, humans deliberately took significant steps to improve their living conditions, including evidence of limited trade in precious stones, which coincided with the use of metals, leading to mining and metallurgy.
Archaeological evidence from Central Asia reveals that turquoise held special significance in Neolithic societies. In eastern Central Asia, specifically at Liuwan in Ledu, located in Qinghai Province, China, turquoise decorations were discovered inside graves alongside stone tools, dating back to the Neolithic period.
Extensive evidence of terrestrial trade in Soviet Central Asia exists from the beginning of the Bronze Age industry, with concurrent commercial connections established with ancient sites in Iran, Afghanistan, and the Indus Valley. This indicates the existence of multiple mines accessible to humans who were willing to exchange this precious material despite the harsh and exhausting environmental conditions of that era.
Traces of this valuable material have been found from distant lands to the Far East, in Bronze Age communities established in ancient sites such as:
During the middle Chalcolithic period, dating to the mid-fourth millennium BC, Altyn-Tepe and settlements in the Geoksyur oasis in the Amu Darya delta contained decorative objects of gold and silver. Among these ornamental items, semi-precious stones, including turquoise, were present, indicating advanced metallurgy and sophisticated craftsmanship.
Archaeologists working to decode historical evidence from past eras discovered ornamental beads, particularly turquoise ones, in the burial pits of the Mehrgarh I period in present-day Balochistan, Pakistan. This revealed the familiarity of these ancient peoples with the mentioned mineral ores.
In the archaeological site of the Mohammad Jafar period (3000-2600 years ago), turquoise beads have been found, indicating that people of the Mohammad Jafar period engaged in the trade of turquoise stone (northeastern Iran), shells (Persian Gulf), and volcanic stones (Lake Van – modern Turkey).
The establishment of concentrated and motivated centres in specific locations demonstrated the need for separate spaces from the general environment, with organised and ultimately secure structures for craftsmen. This led to turquoise achieving both economic and luxury status.
The movable objects found at Shahr-e Sukhteh are remarkably diverse. Ornamental objects were primarily made with imported semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, agate, and turquoise, which were brought to Shahr-e Sukhteh from distant mines. Local craftsmen would then cut and shape these materials into decorative objects for export to distant lands beyond the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia.
The specialisation was so pronounced that sites where precious stone objects, especially turquoise, were manufactured were completely separated from sites that used local materials for decorative items. The presence of gold beads and silver plaques alongside turquoise and lapis lazuli beads represents the high status associated with these rare and precious stones of the third millennium BC.
In one of Shahr-e Sukhteh’s graves (No. 420), belonging to a woman aged 30-35 years with 31 funerary objects, alongside 4 gold beads and 193 beads made of quartz and agate, turquoise was also present. Among the excavations at Shahr-e Sukhteh, agate claimed the highest number with 374 samples, followed by limestone with 190 samples, lapis lazuli with 194 samples (12 beads with gold coating), chalcedony with 42 samples, and finally turquoise with 11 samples.
Turquoise trade began in ancient times and continues to this day. Its pinnacle can be traced to the glorious period of the Achaemenid dynasty, with the foundation inscription of Darius’s palace in Susa serving as a prominent example. During that era, turquoise was called “akhshaini” and was brought from Khwarezm to decorate palaces.
During the Sassanid period (224-642 AD), beads and cylinders from this era show that turquoise was more prevalent than other minerals such as garnet and tourmaline, indicating Iranians’ familiarity with the properties of this type of mineral.
After Islam arrived in Iran, turquoise received special attention. Soon, merchants’ focus concentrated on Nishapur due to the relative ease and accessibility of transportation and the establishment of caravanserais in the most challenging climatic points. This helped raise the living standards of its inhabitants.
Nishapur became a stopping point for caravans travelling from Yazd, Kerman, Fars, and India, carrying their goods to Gorgan and lands beyond the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers. They would bring Chinese and Khwarezmian goods back via the same route to Rey and the western Iran regions.
Nishapur was located on the Silk Road and was called the “bride of Islamic cities” and the “treasury of Khorasan.” Ibn Faqih Hamdani wrote about the beauty of the lands, stating that the most beautiful places for mining extraction (naturally referring to turquoise) were Nishapur.
This city was situated on the main trade route of that time and was called the “corridor of the East.” The main commercial route from Iran to Turkestan went from Nishapur to Sarakhs and then to Merv, holding greater importance. Due to this, its squares and markets gained general fame, and the mines, especially turquoise, were effective in its economic expansion.
Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi, one of the greatest medieval scholars, wrote: “Turquoise mines exist in several places: first in Khorasan around Nishapur, and Turkestan around Ilaq and Ghazni, similarly in Kerman and several other places. But except for Nishapur, all others are inferior.”
He used the word “bad” (inferior), raising questions about how he could distinguish between the best and worst types of turquoise and what methods he used for evaluation.
Al-Razi (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya ibn Yahya al-Razi) classified materials (minerals) from a geological perspective in his book “Kitab al-Asrar” into three types, each divided into several categories: animal, plant, and terrestrial. He mentions turquoise in the terrestrial category, listing it among thirteen stones including “murqisha,” “maghnasia,” and others.
Suhrawardi (Shaikh al-Ishraq) stated: “From the mixing of elements with each other, three kingdoms of beings emerge, each having its own special angelic talisman. For example, in the world of minerals, gold and precious gems have special brilliance, and their effect on the human soul is to bring joy and happiness.”
Suhrawardi referred to the spiritual and psychological effects of turquoise on the soul, suggesting that ancient peoples might have recognised turquoise’s calming effects on the spirits of their deceased, which is why they placed this stone in their graves.
During the Qajar dynasty and throughout Nasir al-Din Shah’s reign, some wounds were inflicted on turquoise that had lasting effects. However, it should not be forgotten that turquoise export to Europe began during this time and continues to this day.
When Nasir al-Din Shah travelled to Khorasan for pilgrimage to the eighth Imam’s shrine, passing through Nishapur, he leased the turquoise mine for income generation. In 1357 AH (Islamic calendar), he leased the Nishapur turquoise mine for fifteen years to Ali Qoli Khan Mokhber al-Dowleh, Minister of Sciences and Director of Dar al-Funun in Tehran.
Travellers reported that most people of Nishapur, alongside agriculture and animal husbandry, made their living by working in turquoise mines. It was said that 1,500 people from the village population worked in the mines, 200 were farmers, and the rest were engaged in turquoise extraction work.
Sultan Husayn Mirza, known as Nayer al-Dowleh, was the governor of Nishapur at that time and, like other rulers, had an excessive interest in turquoise extraction. He began excavation and extraction in the Anjiri cave (so named because of two fig trees located there), but the turquoise from this cave caused a severe price decline in Europe.
The problem arose from dishonest practices: when turquoise is kept in a moist environment, it maintains its special lustre. Unscrupulous sellers placed these turquoise stones in jars full of wet sand and sent them to Europe. When these turquoise stones were removed from the jars, even gemmologists were deceived. However, the special lustre of turquoise didn’t last more than a few days and transformed into a completely worthless stone.
Reputable merchants and traders, to ensure this beautiful gem wouldn’t be discredited, devised a system for determining quality and price. Four expert turquoise cutters, who lived among the mine workers, would spread a leather cloth and examine the turquoise, whose authenticity had already been established. Each of the four would give their price and opinion without the seller’s or buyer’s knowledge, and the average of the four prices would be used as the selling criterion.
Several methods were developed to determine turquoise authenticity:
According to historical sources, turquoise was used not only for decorative purposes but also for treating spiritual, psychological, and physical ailments. Nasir al-Din Tusi wrote: “Seeing turquoise increases the brightness of the eyes and is used in eye medicines. Carrying turquoise is considered a good omen, and it is said that whoever carries it will triumph over enemies, and kings favour it.”
Interestingly, the Rig Veda (10/87), the oldest book of the Aryans and the most ancient writing in the Indo-European language, dating to 1500-900 BC, states: “O stones, remove misfortune from us, drive away ill will from us, and make the dawn our medicine.”
In the 20th century, workers digging the main tunnel of the turquoise mine and its branches at an altitude of 1600 meters reached the deep pits of the royal caves, green cave, and water cave. Since the entrances of these caves are located at altitudes of 1900, 1694, and 1670 meters respectively, it can be concluded that at least 4000 years ago, using primitive tools (pickaxe, chisel), they dug wells at least 100, 94, and 70 meters deep respectively into the mountain and brought their stones to the mountain surface to use the turquoise mineral.
Global Turquoise Deposits
While turquoise mines exist in several countries worldwide, including Turkestan, Asia Minor, and the southwestern United States (New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and the Nevada desert), among all the world’s turquoise mines, Nishapur turquoise remains the most desirable and valuable.
The cultural significance of Nishapur turquoise is captured beautifully in Persian poetry. Hafez Shirazi wrote:
“Except for that intoxicating narcissus whose eye is a messenger
Under this turquoise dome, no one sits happily”
This verse reflects the deep cultural connection between turquoise and Persian artistic expression, where the gemstone serves as a metaphor for beauty and transcendence.
Nishapur turquoise, as a rare gemstone, has successfully maintained its role and position in culture, historical heritage, and civilisation through centuries of social transformations. Despite the expansion of extraction technology and the global supply of precious and colourful stones in today’s world, this gem continues to maintain its distinguished rank.
The journey of turquoise from the Bronze Age to the Qajar period, as examined through numerous authoritative historical texts and sources, reveals a remarkable continuity of human fascination with this mineral. The “Bu Ishaq turquoise” represents not just a geological specimen, but a cultural artifact that embodies thousands of years of human artistry, trade, and spiritual belief.
Today, as we continue to extract and appreciate this magnificent stone, we remain connected to our ancestors who first recognised its beauty and value. Nishapur turquoise stands as a testament to the enduring power of natural beauty to capture human imagination across millennia, serving as both a luxury item and a bridge connecting us to our cultural heritage.
The legacy of Nishapur turquoise reminds us that some treasures transcend their material value, becoming symbols of cultural identity and historical continuity that deserve preservation for future generations.
Part 1: Introduction and Hermeneutical Foundations of Persian turquoise This article is a three-part series exploring the deep cultural significance of turquoise in Persian literature
Nishapur Turquoise: Deep in the arid mountains of northeastern Iran, where the ancient Silk Road once carried precious goods between East and West, lies one
How a humble mineral from Nishapur became heaven’s messenger on earth Persian Turquoise: In the ancient city of Nishapur, where the Silk Road once carried
Discover the Beauty of Natural Persian Turquoise: Handmade Jewellery Collection
